perangkat keras infut device

A. Perangkat Keras dan Fungsinya
Secara fisik, Komputer terdiri dari beberapa komponen yang merupakan suatu sistem. Sistem adalah komponen-komponen yang saling bekerja sama membentuk suatu kesatuan. Apabila salah satu komponen tidak berfungsi, akan mengakibatkan tidak berfungsinya suatu komputer dengan baik. Komponen komputer ini termasuk dalam kategori elemen perangkat keras (hardware). Berdasarkan fungsinya, perangkat keras komputer dibagi menjadi :
1. input divice (unit masukan)
2. Process device (unit Pemrosesan)
3. Output device (unit keluaran)
4. Backing Storage ( unit penyimpanan)
5. Periferal ( unit tambahan)
komponen dasar komputer yang terdiri dari input, process, output dan storage. Input device terdiri dari keyboard dan mouse, Process device adalah microprocessor (ALU, Internal Communication, Registers dan control section), Output device terdiri dari monitor dan printer, Storage external memory terdiri dari harddisk, Floppy drive, CD ROM, Magnetic tape. Storage internal memory terdiri dari RAM dan ROM. Sedangkan komponen Periferal Device merupakan komponen tambahan atau sebagai komponen yang belum ada atau tidak ada sebelumnya. Komponen Periferal ini contohnya : TV Tuner Card, Modem, Capture Card.
1. Unit Masukan ( Input Device )
Unit ini berfungsi sebagai media untuk memasukkan data dari luar ke dalam suatu memori dan processor untuk diolah guna menghasilkan informasi yang diperlukan. Input devices atau unit masukan yang umumnya digunakan personal computer (PC) adalah keyboard dan mouse, keyboard dan mouse adalah unit yang menghubungkan user (pengguna) dengan komputer. Selain itu terdapat joystick, yang biasa digunakan untuk bermain games atau permainan dengan komputer. Kemudian scanner, untuk mengambil gambar sebagai gambar digital yang nantinya dapat dimanipulasi. Touch panel, dengan menggunakan sentuhan jari user dapat melakukan suatu proses akses file. Microphone, untuk merekam suara ke dalam komputer.
Input device berfungsi sebagai media untuk memasukkan data dari luar sistem ke dalam suatu memori dan processor untuk diolah dan menghasilkan informasi yang diperlukan. Data yang dimasukkan ke dalam sistem komputer dapat berbentuk signal input dan maintenance input. Signal input berbentuk data yang dimasukkan ke dalam sistem komputer, sedangkan maintenance input berbentuk program yang digunakan untuk mengolah data yang dimasukkan. Jadi Input device selain digunakan untuk memasukkan data dapat pula digunakan untuk memasukkan program. Berdasarkan sifatnya, peralatan input dapat digolongkan menjadi dua yaitu :
• Peratalan input langsung, yaitu input yang dimasukkan langsung diproses oleh alat pemroses. Contohnya : keyboard, mouse, touch screen, light pen, digitizer graphics tablet, scanner.
• Peralatan input tidak langsung, input yang melalui media tertentu sebelum suatu input diproses oleh alat pemroses. Contohnya : punched card, disket, harddisk.
Unit masukan atau peralatan input ini terdiri dari beberapa macam peranti yaitu :
a. Keyboard
Keyboard merupakan unit input yang paling penting dalam suatu pengolahan data dengan komputer. Keyboard dapat berfungsi memasukkan huruf, angka, karakter khusus serta sebagai media bagi user (pengguna) untuk melakukan perintah-perintah lainnya yang diperlukan, seperti menyimpan file dan membuka file. Penciptaan keyboard komputer berasal dari model mesin ketik yang diciptakan dan dipatentkan oleh Christopher Latham pada tahun 1868, Dan pada tahun 1887 diproduksi dan dipasarkan oleh perusahan Remington. Keyboard yang digunakanan sekarang ini adalah jenis QWERTY, pada tahun 1973, keyboard ini diresmikan sebagai keyboard standar ISO (International Standar Organization). Jumlah tombol pada keyboard ini berjumlah 104 tuts. Keyboard sekarang yang kita kenal memiliki beberapa jenis port, yaitu port serial, ps2, usb dan wireless.
Jenis-Jenis Keyboard :
1.) QWERTY
2.) DVORAK
3.) KLOCKENBERG
Keyboard yang biasanya dipakai adalah keyboard jenis QWERTY, yang bentuknya ini mirip seperti tuts pada mesin tik. Keyboard QWERTY memiliki empat bagian yaitu :
1. typewriter key
2. numeric key
3. function key
4. special function key.
1. Typewriter Key
Tombol ini merupakan tombol utama dalam input. Tombol ini sama dengan tuts pada mesin tik yang terdiri atas alphabet dan tombol lainnya sebagaimana berikut :
• Back Space
Tombol ini berfungsi untuk menghapus 1 character di kiri cursor
• Caps Lock
Bila tombol ini ditekan, maka lampu indikator caps lock akan menyala, hal ini menunjukkan bahwa huruf yang diketik akan menjadi huruf besar atau Kapital, bila lampu indicator caps lock mati, maka huruf akan menjadi kecil.
• Delete
Tombol ini berfungsi untuk menghapus 1 karakter pada posisi cursor
• Esc
Tombol ini berfungsi untuk membatalkan suatu perintah dari suatu menu.
• End
Tombol ini berfungsi untuk memindahkan cursor ke akhir baris/halaman/lembar kerja
• Enter
Tombol ini berfungsi untuk berpindah ke baris baru atau untuk melakukan suatu proses perintah.
• Home
Untuk menuju ke awal baris atau ke sudut kiri atas layar
• Insert
Tombol ini berfungsi untuk menyisipkan character.
• Page Up
Tombol ini berfungsi untuk meggerakan cursor 1 layar ke atas
• Page Down
Tombol ini berfungsi untuk Menggerakkan cursor 1 layar ke bawah
• Tab
Tombol ini berfungsi untuk memindahkan cursor 1 tabulasi ke kanan.
2. Numeric Key
Tombol ini terletak di sebelah kanan keyboard. tombol ini terdiri atas angka dan arrow key. Jika lampu indikator num lock menyala maka tombol ini berfungsi sebagai angka. Jika lampu indikator num lock mati maka tombol ini berfungsi sebagai arrow key.
3. Function Key
Tombol ini terletak pada baris paling atas, tombol fungsi ini ini terdiri dari F1 s/d F12. Fungsi tombol ini berbeda-beda tergantung dari program komputer yang digunakan.
4. Special Function Key
Tombol ini terdiri atas tombol Ctrl, Shift, dan Alt. Tombol akan mempunyai fungsi bila ditekan secara bersamaan dengan tombol lainnya. Misalnya, untuk memblok menekan bersamaan tombol shift dan arrow key, untuk menggerakan kursor menekan bersamaan ctrl dan arrow key.
b. Mouse
Mouse adalah salah unit masukan (input device). Fungsi alat ini adalah untuk perpindahan pointer atau kursor secara cepat. Selain itu, dapat sebagai perintah praktis dan cepat dibanding dengan keyboard. Mouse mulai digunakan secara maksimal sejak sistem operasi telah berbasiskan GUI (Graphical User Interface). sinyal-sinyal listrik sebagai input device mouse ini dihasilkan oleh bola kecil di dalam mouse, sesuai dengan pergeseran atau pergerakannya. Sebagian besar mouse terdiri dari tiga tombol, umumnya hanya dua tombol yang digunakan yaitu tombol kiri dan tombol kanan. Saat ini mouse dilengkapi pula dengan tombol penggulung (scroll), dimana letak tombol ini terletak ditengah. Istilah penekanan tombol kiri disebut dengan klik (Click) dimana penekanan ini akan berfungsi bila mouse berada pada objek yang ditunjuk, tetapi bila tidak berada pada objek yang ditunjuk penekanan ini akan diabaikan. Selain itu terdapat pula istilah lainnya yang disebut dengan menggeser (drag) yaitu menekan tombol kiri mouse tanpa melepaskannya dengan sambil digeser. Drag ini akan mengakibatkan objek akan berpindah atau tersalin ke objek lain dan kemungkinan lainnya. Penekanan tombol kiri mouse dua kali secara cepat dan teratur disebut dengan klik ganda (double click) sedangkan menekan tombol kanan mouse satu kali disebut dengan klik kanan (right click)Mouse terdiri dari
beberapa port yaitu mouse serial, mouse ps/2, usb dan wireless.

 

 c. Touchpad
Unit masukkan ini biasanya dapat kita temukan pada laptop dan notebook, yaitu dengan menggunakan sentuhan jari. Biasanya unit ini dapat digunakan sebagai pengganti mouse. Selain touchpad adalah model unit masukkan yang sejenis yaitu pointing stick dan trackball.

  

d. Light Pen
Light pen adalah pointer elektronik yang digunakan untuk modifikasi dan men-design gambar dengan screen (monitor). Light pen memiliki sensor yang dapat mengirimkan sinyal cahaya ke komputer yang kemudian direkam, dimana layar monitor bekerja dengan merekam enam sinyal elektronik setiap baris per detik.

  

e. Joy Stick dan Games Paddle
Alat ini biasa digunakan pada permainan (games) komputer. Joy Stick biasanya berbentuk tongkat, sedangkan games paddle biasanya berbentuk kotak atau persegi terbuat dari plastik dilengkapi dengan tombol-tombol yang akan mengatur gerak suatu objek dalam komputer.

  

f. Barcode
Barcode termasuk dalam unit masukan (input device). Fungsi alat ini adalah untuk membaca suatu kode yang berbentuk kotak-kotak atau garis-garis tebal vertical yang kemudian diterjemahkan dalam bentuk angka-angka. Kode-kode ini biasanya menempel pada produk-produk makanan, minuman, alat elektronik dan buku. Sekarang ini, setiap kasir di supermarket atau pasar swalayan di Indonesia untuk mengidentifikasi produk yang dijualnya dengan barcode.

  

  

g. Scanner
Scanner adalah sebuah alat yang dapat berfungsi untuk meng-copy atau menyalin gambar atau teks yang kemudian disimpan ke dalam memori komputer. Dari memori komputer selanjutnya, disimpan dalam harddisk ataupun floppy disk. Fungsi scanner ini mirip seperti mesin fotocopy, perbedaannya adalah mesin fotocopy hasilnya dapat dilihat pada kertas sedangkan scanner hasilnya dapat ditampilkan melalui monitor terlebih dahulu sehingga kita dapat melakukan perbaikan atau modifikasi dan kemudian dapat disimpan kembali baik dalam bentuk file text maupun file gambar. Selain scanner untuk gambar terdapat pula scan yang biasa digunakan untuk mendeteksi lembar jawaban komputer. Scanner yang biasa digunakan untuk melakukan scan lembar jawaban komputer adalah SCAN IR yang biasa digunakan untuk LJK (Lembar Jawaban Komputer) pada ulangan umum dan Ujian Nasional. Scan jenis ini terdiri dari lampu sensor yang disebut Optik, yang dapat mengenali jenis pensil 2B. Scanner yang beredar di pasaran adalah scanner untuk meng-copy gambar atau photo dan biasanya juga dilengkapi dengan fasilitas OCR (Optical Character Recognition) untuk mengcopy atau menyalin objek dalam bentuk teks.

  

Saat ini telah dikembangkan scanner dengan teknologi DMR (Digital Mark Reader), dengan sistem kerja mirip seperti mesin scanner untuk koreksi lembar jawaban komputer, biodata dan formulir seperti formulir untuk pilihan sekolah. Dengan DMR lembar jawaban tidak harus dijawab menggunaan pensil 2 B, tapi dapat menggunakan alat tulis lainnya seperti pulpen dan spidol serta dapat menggunakan kertas biasa.
h. Kamera Digital
Perkembangan teknologi telah begitu canggih sehingga komputer mampu menerima input dari kamera. Kamera ini dinamakan dengan Kamera Digital dengan kualitas gambar lebih bagus dan lebih baik dibandingkan dengan cara menyalin gambar yang menggunakan scanner. Ketajaman gambar dari kamera digital ini ditentukan oleh pixel-nya. Kemudahan dan kepraktisan alat ini sangat membantu banyak kegiatan dan pekerjaan. Kamera digital tidak memerlukan film sebagaimana kamera biasa. Gambar yang diambil dengan kamera digital disimpan ke dalam memori kamera tersebut dalam bentuk file, kemudian dapat dipindahkan atau ditransfer ke komputer. Kamera digital yang beredar di pasaran saat ini ada berbagai macam jenis, mulai dari jenis kamera untuk mengambil gambar statis sampai dengan kamera yang dapat merekan gambar hidup atau bergerak seperti halnya video.

i. Mikropon dan Headphone
Unit masukan ini berfungsi untuk merekam atau memasukkan suara yang akan disimpan dalam memori komputer atau untuk mendengarkan suara. Dengan mikropon, kita dapat merekam suara ataupun dapat berbicara kepada orang yang kita inginkan pada saat chating. Penggunaan mikropon ini tentunya memerlukan perangkat keras lainnya yang berfungsi untuk menerima input suara yaitu sound card dan speaker untuk mendengarkan suara.

j. Graphics Pads
Teknologi Computer Aided Design (CAD) dapat membuat rancangan bangunan, rumah, mesin mobil, dan pesawat dengan menggunakan Graphics Pads. Graphics pads ini merupakan input masukan untuk menggambar objek pada monitor. Graphics pads yang digunakan mempunyai dua jenis. Pertama, menggunakan jarum (stylus) yang dihubungkan ke pad atau dengan memakai bantalan tegangan rendah, yang pada bantalan tersebut terdapat permukaan membrane sensitif sentuhan ( touch sensitive membrane surface). Tegangan rendah yang dikirimkan kemudian diterjemahkan menjadi koordinat X – Y. Kedua, menggunakan bantalan sensitif sentuh ( touch sensitive pad) tanpa menggunakan jarum. Cara kerjanya adalah dengan meletakkan kertas gambar pada bantalan, kemudian ditulisi dengan pensil.

windows media player 11 windows vista

Windows Media Player 11 is loaded with smart, fun features that breathe new life into your music collection and create a much more personal entertainment experience. The new design lets you get the most out of your digital library and enjoy simple solutions for managing it all.

Discover new music

Many of the great stores that you visited in Windows Media Player 10 are available in this version of the Player as well. To find a store, just click the Browse all Online Stores option on the tab to the right of the Sync tab. The name of the tab changes depending on the menu option you select (Online Stores, Media Guide, or the name of your favorite store). See a list of stores available in Windows Media Player 11.

Media Guide and Internet radio

All of the features that you loved about the WindowsMedia.com Guide in previous versions of the Player are still available in Windows Media Player 11. The Guide offers free music videos, movie trailers, and quick access to online radio stations. To access the Guide, just click the tab to the right of the Sync tab, and then click Media Guide. Use the Internet Radio link (located in the right column of each page) to easily search for stations around the world.

Great options for ripping CDs

Do you have CDs that you want to copy into your Windows Media Player library? No problem. Windows Media Player 11 makes ripping your entire music collection fast and simple. Learn more about ripping CDs.

In addition to the current format options for ripping your music—Windows Media Audio (WMA), MP3, Windows Media Audio (Variable Bit Rate), and Windows Media Audio (Lossless)—Windows Media Player 11 introduces two new options: Windows Media Audio Pro and WAV (Lossless). For more information, see Change settings for ripping music.

SyncToy v2.0

SyncToy 2.0 for Windows is available as a free download from the Microsoft Download Center. The easy to use, customizable application helps you copy, move, rename, and delete files between folders and computers.

There are files from all kinds of sources that we want to store and manage. Files are created by our digital cameras, e-mail, cell phones, portable media players, camcorders, PDAs, and laptops. Increasingly, computer users are using different folders, drives, and even different computers (such as a laptop and a desktop) to store, manage, retrieve, and view files. Yet managing hundreds or thousands of files is still largely a manual operation. In some cases it is necessary to regularly get copies of files from another location to add to primary location; in other cases there is a need to keep two storage locations exactly in sync. Some users manage files manually, dragging and dropping from one place to another and keeping track of whether the locations are synchronized in their heads. Other users may use two or more applications to provide this functionality.

Now there is an easier way. SyncToy, a free PowerToy for Microsoft Windows, is an easy to use, highly customizable program that helps users to do the heavy lifting involved with the copying, moving, and synchronization of different directories. Most common operations can be performed with just a few clicks of the mouse, and additional customization is available without additional complexity. SyncToy can manage multiple sets of folders at the same time; it can combine files from two folders in one case, and mimic renames and deletes in another case. Unlike other applications, SyncToy actually keeps track of renames to files and will make sure those changes get carried over to the synchronized folder.

We have collected feedback from the discussion forum on the Windows XP Professional Photography web site, from customer feedback surveys, from a large number of professional and hobbyist photographers at Microsoft, and from various world-wide forums, sites, reviews, and blogs on the web. Based on your feedback, the following features were added to this release of SyncToy:

• Dynamic Drive Letter Assignment: Drive letter reassignment will now be detected and updated in the folder pair definition.
• True Folder Sync: Folder creates, renames, and deletes are now synchronized for all SyncToy actions.
• Exclusion Filtering Based on Name: File exclusion based on name with exact or fuzzy matching.
• Filtering Based on File Attributes: The ability to exclude files based on one or more file attributes (Read-Only, System, Hidden).
• Unattended Folder Pair Execution: Addressed issues related to running scheduled folder pairs while logged off.
• Folder Pairs With Shared Endpoints: Ability for folder pairs associated with the same or different instances of SyncToy to share end-points.
• Command line enhancements: Added the ability to manage folder pairs via the command line interface.
• Re-Architect Sync Engine: The SyncToy engine has been rearchitected to provide scalability and the ability to add significant enhancements in future releases.
• Sync engine is also more robust insomuch that many single, file level errors are skipped without affecting the entire sync operation.
• Sync Encrypted Files: Sync of Encrypted files works when local folder and files are encrypted, which addresses the common scenario involving sync between local, encrypted laptop PC folder and remote, unencrypted desktop PC folder.
• 64-Bit Support: SyncToy now has a native 64-bit build (x64 only) for 64-bit versions of Windows.
• Folder pair rename
• Sub-folder Exclusion Enhancements: Descendents created under excluded sub-folders are automatically excluded. Usability improvements for the sub-folder exclusion dialog.
• Folder Pair Metadata Moved: Folder pair metadata removed from MyDocuments to resolve any issues with server-based folder pair re-direction setup.
• Setup Improvements: Integrated setup with single self-extracting archive file and no extra downloads if you already have .NET Framework 2.0 installed. Enabled silent install for the SyncToy Installer file (see readme.txt file for more information). Removed combine and subscribe actions.
• Removed combine and subscribe actions.

Note: We've taken great care to ensure that this tool operates as it should, but it is not part of Windows and is not supported by Microsoft Technical Support. For this reason, Microsoft Technical Support is unable to answer questions about SyncToy. To speak to other users and contribute feedback about your experiences with SyncToy, please use the forums.

HD Photo Plug-ins for Photoshop are Released

HD Photo Plug-ins for Photoshop are Released

HD Photo plug-ins for Adobe® Photoshop® CS2 and CS3 have been officially released for both Windows and OSX. They're available now from the Microsoft Download Center.

Here are the separate downloads for Windows and OSX.

The Windows version is supported on Windows XP and Windows Vista, and works with Photoshop CS2 and CS3. While not officially supported, it will also work with limited features with older versions of Photoshop and with Photoshop Elements. The included README file has details.

The OSX version works with both 10.4 (Tiger) and 10.5 (Leopard), and supports Photoshop CS2 and CS3.

The features supported on Windows and OSX are identical. The files created with either version are fully compatible with each other and with Windows Vista, Windows Live Photo Gallery, the HD Photo Device Porting Kit, and several other applications that support HD Photo.

I previously posted information about the features provided in the plug-in and an overview of the encoder parameters and what they do. Take a look at previous blog entries here and here. I also gave a presentation at WinHEC 2007 about HD Photo Best Practices. While targeted primarily for hardware developers, the presentation contains a lot of information that may be useful for Photoshop users that want to best optimize their encoder parameters. You can find a copy of the presentation here: WinHEC 2007: HD Photo Implementation Guidelines.

If you've been using the beta version released last summer, you won't find anything new here (other than the removal of the expiration date and the absence of BETA in the name.) All the changes we've made since the last beta are under the covers, fixing a couple minor bugs, addressing several theoretical security vulnerabilities and generally bringing the code up to current Microsoft standards for released software. But on the surface, the released plug-ins look and act identical to the most recent betas. Don't forget that the BETA versions will expire on December 31st, so you should definitely download and install these new released versions.

Once again, I'd like to acknowledge and thank Pegasus Imaging Systems for their participation in the development of these plug-ins.

Microsoft Pro Photo Tools 2

Microsoft Pro Photo Tools provides a set of tools for photographers to perform various tasks with their images—including RAW captures. The current version enables you to quickly geotag your photos, view and edit metadata, and more, leveraging the power of Windows and Microsoft Live Local.

New in Microsoft Pro Photo Tools 2

• Support for reading and writing metadata to/from XMP side cars so that metadata will interoperate with Adobe products. This is in addition to reading and writing from the file.
• Users can convert from RAW to JPEG, TIFF, and HD Photo using "As Shot" settings. This includes the ability to resize the image.
• Users can view actual RAW image in addition to thumbnails
• Support for 64-bit Windows
• Support for international locales
• Improved UI for geotagging

Pro Photo Tools includes the following features:

Geotagging with flexibility

As geotagging gains popularity, photographers want to be able to quickly identify the location for their images. With Pro Photo Tools, you can gather location information from a variety of sources and apply it to the metadata in your images.

Determine location name automatically

With Pro Photo Tools, you can automatically apply the actual name of the location where a photo was taken based on the GPS coordinates. Instead of numbers, you'll have the "real" names, and that information can then be saved in the metadata for your photos.

Determine GPS coordinates from location name

Just because you haven't always had a GPS receiver doesn't mean you can't assign GPS coordinates to your photos. In fact, using the power of Microsoft Live Local you can determine the GPS coordinates where any photo was taken based on location name information in the image metadata. The GPS coordinates can then be added to the metadata for your photos and the photos plotted on a map.

Identify location on a map

For the maximum in flexibility when assigning a location to an image, you can navigate to the precise location where you took a given photo and tag the photo with that location information based on a specific position on the map.

View images on a map

As cool as it is to have GPS coordinate information connected to your images, to really get a sense of place with your photos, you need to view them on a map. Pro Photo Tools utilizes Windows Live Local to display your images on a map of the world, including the ability to view your images on a normal map or a satellite view of the world.

Edit image metadata

Metadata has become increasingly important to photographers as a way to manage and organize their images. Among the many things it enables is a rich capability to search for images. You can now update a wide range of metadata for your images using Pro Photo Tools, and that metadata gets stored in the actual image file, so wherever your photo goes, your data goes.

RAW support

By leveraging the Windows Imaging Components (WIC), we're able to provide support for any RAW file format (in addition to TIFF and JPEG) for which a codec has been developed. And that includes most RAW file formats. Not only can you view your RAW images within Pro Photo Tools, you can also update metadata—including GPS coordinates—directly in the file. The updated metadata is stored within the RAW file, not in a cumbersome "sidecar" file. (For information on obtaining codecs for your RAW images or other file formats, visit Codecs for Windows.

Extensibility

Pro Photo Tools was built with extensibility in mind. Rather than creating a one-off tool, we created a framework we can leverage for future tools. This will allow us to add additional functionality in future versions of Pro Photo Tools more efficiently. That means you'll get more features sooner.

For more information on how to use Microsoft Pro Photo Tools, see the article Geotagging Goes Mainstream.

Microsoft

Microsoft Corporation (NASDAQ: MSFT, HKEX: 4338) is a United States-based multinational computer technology corporation that develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of software products for computing devices.^[8] Headquartered in Redmond, Washington, USA, its most profitable products are the Microsoft Windows operating system and the Microsoft Office suite of productivity software.

The company was founded to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800. Microsoft rose to dominate the home computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by the Windows line of operating systems. Its products have all achieved near-ubiquity in the desktop computer market. One commentator notes that Microsoft's original mission was "a computer on every desk and in every home, running Microsoft software."^[9] Microsoft possesses footholds in other markets, with assets such as the MSNBC cable television network, the MSN Internet portal, and the Microsoft Encarta multimedia encyclopedia. The company also markets both computer hardware products such as the Microsoft mouse as well as home entertainment products such as the Xbox, Xbox 360, Zune and MSN TV.^[8] The company's initial public stock offering (IPO) was in 1986; the ensuing rise of the company's stock price has made four billionaires and an estimated 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees.^[10][11][12]

Throughout its history the company has been the target of criticism, including monopolistic business practices and anti-competitive strategies including refusal to deal and tying. The U.S. Justice Department and the European Commission, among others, have ruled against Microsoft for various antitrust violations

1975–1984: Founding

Following the launch of the Altair 8800, William Henry Gates III, (known as Bill Gates) called the creators of the new microcomputer, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), offering to demonstrate an implementation of the BASIC programming language for the system. After the demonstration, MITS agreed to distribute Altair BASIC.^[15] Gates left Harvard University, moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico where MITS was located, and founded Microsoft there. The company's first international office was founded on November 1, 1978, in Japan, titled "ASCII Microsoft" (now called "Microsoft Japan").^[15] On January 1, 1979, the company moved from Albuquerque to a new home in Bellevue, Washington.^[15] Steve Ballmer joined the company on June 11, 1980, and later succeeded Bill Gates as CEO.^[15]

Among pre-IBM-PC products were the software package TASC (The AppleSoft Compiler), which compiled a BASIC program into Apple machine language, and the hardware Microsoft Softcard, an add-on Z80 processor card for the Apple II and compatible computers which allowed the use of the CP/M operating system instead of Applesoft and Apple DOS. In 1980, Microsoft entered the operating system business with its own version of Unix, called Xenix, which it licensed to various computer vendors.

DOS (Disk Operating System) was the operating system that brought the company its first real success. On August 12, 1981, after negotiations with Digital Research failed, IBM awarded a contract to Microsoft to provide a version of the CP/M operating system, which was set to be used in the upcoming IBM Personal Computer (PC). For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, which IBM renamed to PC-DOS. Later, the market saw a flood of IBM PC clones after Columbia Data Products successfully cloned the IBM BIOS, and by aggressively marketing MS-DOS to manufacturers of IBM-PC clones, Microsoft rose from a small player to one of the major software vendors in the home computer industry.^{[16][17][18][19][20][21][22]} The company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as a publishing division named Microsoft Press.

Anti-competitive

Anti-competitive

Since the 1980s, Microsoft has been the focus of much controversy in the computer industry.^[101] The majority of criticism has been for its business tactics, often described with the motto "embrace, extend and extinguish". Microsoft initially embraces a competing standard or product, then extends it to produce their own version which is then incompatible with the standard, which in time extinguishes competition that does not or cannot use Microsoft's new version.^[102] These and other tactics have resulted in lawsuits brought by companies and governments, and billions of dollars in rulings against Microsoft.^{[103][13][45]} In January 2009, Opera Software ASA filed a complaint to the European Commission stating that Microsoft's inclusion of Internet Explorer with Windows-based personal computers is a violation of European competition laws.^[104]

Freedom and privacy

Freedom and privacy

Free software proponents point to the company's joining of the Trusted Computing Platform Alliance (TCPA) as a cause of concern. A group of companies that seek to implement an initiative called Trusted Computing (computing in which a computer is not only secured for its owner, but also secured against its owner as well), TCPA is decried by critics as it allows software developers and platform controllers to enforce indiscriminate restrictions over how consumers use software, and over how computers behave.^{[105][106]:23[107][108]}

“ Large media corporations (including the movie companies and record companies), together with computer companies such as Microsoft and Intel, are planning to make your computer obey them instead of you.”

Richard Stallman, founder of the Free Software Foundation^[109]

Advocates of free software also take issue with Microsoft's promotion of Digital Rights Management (DRM) and total cost of ownership (TCO) comparisons with its "Get the facts" campaign. Digital Rights Management is a technology that allows content providers to impose restrictions on the methods by which digital media is used on consumer hardware; and subsequently, detractors contend that such technology may infringe on fair use and other rights, especially given that it restricts legal activities such as re-mixing or reproduction of material for use in slide shows or the resale of the goods by the customer.^[110][111]

Misrepresentation

Misrepresentation

The "Get the facts" campaign argues that Windows Server has a lower TCO than Linux and lists a variety of studies in order to prove its case.^[112] Proponents of Linux unveiled their own study arguing that, contrary to one of Microsoft's claims, Linux has lower management costs than Windows Server.^[113] Another study by the Yankee Group claims that upgrading from one version of Windows Server to another costs a significant fraction (a quarter to a third) of the switching costs from Windows Server to Linux, even for large enterprises, and that the other major reasons for a switch away from Windows servers were the increased security and reliability of Linux servers and a chance to escape the Microsoft "lock-in".^[114]

In 2004, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) of the UK warned Microsoft that an ad from the campaign which claimed that "Linux was ... 10 times more expensive than Windows Server 2003", was "misleading", as the hardware chosen for the Linux server was needlessly expensive.^[115] The ASA's complaint was that "the measurements for Linux were performed on an IBM zSeries [mainframe], which was more expensive and did not perform as well as other IBM series." The comparison was to Windows Server 2003 running on two 900 MHz Intel Xeon CPUs.^[116]

David Meyer writing on Zdnet.com pointed out that, "Microsoft has a long history of applying for, and being granted patents for, inventions that many argue--and can sometimes demonstrate--were based on earlier work carried out by others, or based on a common, self-evident idea."^[117] This was in response to its 2008 patent application for the ability to progress in page-up or page-down increments with a single keystroke — a method that has been pervasive for decades.^[118]